Inclusive and Supportive Education Congress International Special Education Conference Inclusion: Celebrating Diversity? 1st - 4th August 2005. Glasgow, Scotland

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FROM SPECIAL SCHOOLS TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION –
THE WAY FORWARD FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE SAHARA.

Dr. John Charema
Mophato Private School, Box 605, Francistown, Botswana
jcharema@yahoo.com

Persons with disabilities, especially children and the young continue to be the most disadvantaged groups in all societies (Hegarty & Alur, 2002). They manifest a number of limitations and are subjected to social discrimination, impoverished educational experiences and above all, very limited work opportunities. It is now widely accepted that children with disabilities should be educated alongside their age peers and be treated as full members of their community. In developing countries, where the rate of unemployment and under-employment is high, and resources are scarce, the scope of preventing or curing, either partially or fully, and educating, training and rehabilitating the disabled is limited. In the case of rural areas, with extremely limited levels of awareness and physical facilities, this is even worse off. It is ironic that although research (UNESCO, 1996) indicates that 87% of the disabled population, in developing countries, lives in rural areas, almost all the education and training institutions for people with disabilities are located in urban areas addressing the needs of urban and relatively well off people.   

With the implementation of inclusive education, all children, boys and girls in rural, urban, and suburban areas, at pre-schools, elementary and secondary level are able to enjoy the company of their peers and the activities of the regular school settings. While it is every person’s inherent right to participate fully in society, translating this philosophy into reality is a process that requires collaboration, teamwork, flexibility, a willingness to take risks, and support from a whole array of individuals, services and institutions. The goal of inclusive education is to prepare all children for productive lives, as full participating members of their community. It must be noted that inclusion should not imply dumping or placing children with special needs in regular classrooms without adequate support, relevant materials and appropriate services, neither should it mean placing undue burdens on teachers and peers. Successful inclusive education requires careful assessment, planning, and adaptation of curriculum, provision of appropriate teaching materials, adequate support and partnership.

This paper is concerned with the challenges that developing countries face in implementing Inclusive Education. Among other factors these challenges include, lack of relevant research information, inadequate support services, lack of appropriate facilities and materials, inadequate training programs and ineffective policies and legislation. Considering financial constraints and political instability experienced in most developing countries South of the Sahara, suggestions that are termed “practical” are given. These include, establishment of village or rural resource and research centers, mobile units and community-based support systems.

Introduction

Developing countries can no longer afford to keep on theorizing while millions of children with disabilities continue to be marginalized, segregated, viewed as objects of pity and disadvantaged both in school and in society. Time has come for professionals, parents and heads of governments of developing countries to pull their resources together and create equal opportunities, conducive learning environments and social justice for children with disabilities. Developing countries are lagging behind in keeping abreast with the changes in special education. Major factors that retard progress in implementing Inclusive Education (IE) in these countries are lack of funding for informative research, lack of adequate resources to equip, facilitate and expand the provision for children with special needs, misdirection of funds towards political security, corruption, limited personnel training programs, inadequate qualified personnel, the absence of enabling legislation and limited support services. Without accurate research figures, most developing countries do not know the size of their problem in terms of the population of school going age children with disabilities, whom they need to provide for. Policies that support the education of children with disabilities should reasonably match the available resources in a country and be enforced in order to achieve results.

Relevant Research Information

Developing countries south of Sahara need to up date their research figures in order for them to have full knowledge of the size of their problems concerning children with disabilities to be provided for. Most of the figures they have are five to ten years behind (Kisanji, 1995; Grol,   (2000), or they rely on UN estimates. There is no reliable information about types and incidence of special educational needs in developing countries. The World Health Organization (WHO) concludes that 40% of the population in developing countries has a disability, with about 10% of school going age. Valid and reliable assessment records do not exist in most developing countries (Grol, 2000). It is important for these countries to embark on serious investigation or research in order to come up with accurate figures that will help them to plan and provide adequate resources for inclusive education. The Jomtien conference held in Thailand had the goal “Education For All by 2000” by providing free education to 200 million children worldwide. According to UNESCO (1994), 16 countries in sub-Saharan Africa account for almost all children in Africa between six and eleven years. The report indicates that this region accounts for one-third of the world’s children who are out of school. A study carried out by Grol (2000) in Botswana, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe, indicates that programs in the area of special educational needs, are under represented and have poor, very little or non-existent documented literature.   The author goes on to point out that lack of written and documented research appears to be a specific African problem that will continue to have developing countries import western literature and ideologies that may not work in their situations. Documented literature relevant to the economic, cultural and political developments in developing countries is thin and sparse. Therefore professionals who are keen to carry out research in this area grapple for funds and information to equip the working personnel with up to date reading materials. Economic and socio political factors affect equity and quality in both general and special education (UNESCO, 1993). A necessary precondition to appropriate policy formulation and program strategy is availability of data. It is evident that there are considerable data gaps in developing countries and this makes it difficult for planning, implementing and supporting inclusive education.   Therefore it is imperative that research centers be established to generate data that will provide up to date statistics for informative planning and implementation of inclusive programs.

Support for Inclusion

Children with disabilities, who are integrated in regular schools, would need additional provision and support in order to benefit socially, psychologically and educationally from any existing education system. Most support systems offer a range of delivery services and placement alternatives for pupils with special educational needs. Approaches of the support offered differ from country to country depending on the administration, quality of personnel involved and the economic resources available. While there is consensus on the implementation of inclusion, it is the writer’s view that developing countries have not yet reached the point where every school in all developing countries has to implement inclusive education. Although evidence indicates that wholesale inclusive education is widely supported due to the positive social and educational outcomes it can produce for learners with special needs (Mill, et al., 1998; Vaughn, et al., 1998; Waldron & McLeskey, 1998) developing countries still have a long way before they can reach that stage.   It is important to ensure that all children who are included are benefiting from the program otherwise regular schools become a dumping ground for children with disabilities in the name of inclusion (Vaughn et al., 1998; Winter, 2000; Blunkett, 2000). Research indicates that regular schoolteachers in developing countries express positive attitudes towards the inclusion of children with disabilities (Mittler & Plat, 1995). Evidence clearly suggests that where inclusion is adequately implemented (World Bank, 2002; Winter, 2000; UNESCO, 2000), by the provision of the right support services, it provides numerous benefits to children with special needs.

Inclusive programs are desirable in developing countries in that it is estimated that 80% of the world’s population of people with disabilities live in developing countries of Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, Latin America and the Middle East, some 150 million of them being children, but only 2% are receiving any form of special needs services (UNESCO, 1993). A well-structured funding arrangement is desirable for meeting the cost of providing adequate educational services for children with disabilities in inclusive schools. Due to lack of relevant research, data available on funding educational services in inclusive schools is at best scanty. Carrington & Robinson (2004) assert that in general, it appears that with the prevailing economic and political turbulence, in many developing countries, special education services are not being adequately funded. World Bank (1996) reports show that educational services are deteriorating as a result of severe decrease in funding in many African countries. The Salamanca Declaration in 1994 in Italy at the World Congress on special needs education, reaffirmed the commitment of the world community (including developing countries), to give the highest policy and budgetary priority towards inclusive education, in order to include all children regardless of individual differences and disabilities (UNESCO, 1994). Research indicates that in many developing countries it remains the case that special needs provision will not be a priority of government policy and expenditure (Brohier, 1995; Kisanji, 1995; McConkey & O’Toole, 1995).   According to Mba (1995) some of the reasons given are that;

• the needs of the “normal” who are in the majority have to be met first prior to meeting those of individuals with special needs who are in the minority.
• due to lack of awareness of the potentials of people with disabilities, expenditure for services for people with disabilities is considered “a waste of scarce funds”.
• meeting the needs of citizens with disabilities is considered “too costly”, without return.  

It remains the case that in several developing countries financial provision for the education and other needs of individuals with disabilities is undertaken largely by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Fisher & Kennedy, 2001). A review of the situation (UNESCO, 1995) of special education in developing countries indicates that in twenty-six of them NGOs were considered the major source of funding, while in several other, NGOs provide up to 40% of the costs of special needs provision.

Facilities and Materials

Inadequate facilities and lack of relevant materials is one of the major obstacles to the implementation of inclusive education in developing countries (Charema & Peresuh, 1996). A study carried out by (Kristensen & Kristensen, 1997) in Uganda and another by Kisanji (1995) in Tanzania, both indicate that in most regular schools where children with disabilities were integrated, the required materials were not provided or were inadequate. Another study carried out in Zambia by (Katwishi, 1988) indicates that there were no specialist teachers in most mainstream schools to provide important advisory services that would assist regular teachers with managing learners with special needs who were being integrated. In his research study in Zimbabwe, (Charema, 1990) indicates that in some of the mainstream schools where children with hearing impairments were integrated, hearing aids had no batteries, and or cords, some of the ear moulds were chipped, some speech trainers were not working and there were no spare parts to have them repaired. According to the writer’s experiences in Zimbabwe when he worked for the Jairos Jiri Association for people with disabilities, some of the wheel chairs were old fashioned and cumbersome to push. One could not wheel oneself and therefore needed someone all the time, which deprived him of independence and privacy. There is need for developing countries to make use of indigenous products to manufacture equipment that can be used and serviced within the country. Due to financial crisis, shortage of foreign currency to import the much-needed equipment, some people with disabilities in Zimbabwe are making wheel chairs, and calipers for people with disabilities, using improvised materials. Other developing countries can also make use of the available resources to make some of the equipment instead of waiting for donor agencies to provide.

It is unfortunate that some of the funds meant for children with special needs, are misdirected towards other causes thereby disadvantaging the rightful recipients. Corruption and power to rule forever have become the major cancer in developing countries, and therefore funds are diverted towards political security and personal gain (Grol, 2000). Ozoji (1995) states that most institutions in developing countries do not have the basic units and materials necessary to provide adequate special needs education. In Asia, Kholi (1993) reports that institutional facilities are grossly inadequate in all countries in the continent as they are serving less than 1% of the population with special needs.

Training Programs

Policy and Legislation

Developing countries lack mandatory policies and legislation that support the effective implementation of inclusion programs (Grol, 2000). These are essential to ensure that the required services are provided and the basis for quality control and monitoring is in place. According to Zindi (1997), in theory many developing countries show interest in the education of children with special educational needs but realistically some of them are not able to carry out their well intentions due to lack of money. Some developing countries develop splendid policy plans to stimulate programs that educate children with special educational needs in order to tempt donors to donate funds but fail to implement the programs (Zindi, 1997). Mandatory policies and laws are necessary in the implementation of inclusive programs in that if enforced, they are likely to produce protective safeguards which guarantee the rights of the beneficiary to receive specific services, time of onset and phase plans, consequential effect for non-compliance, room for litigation, accountability, evaluation and monitoring procedures (Eleweke, 1998). While financial constraints and poor technology are crucial factors in developing countries, political corruption, ruthlessly cripple the effectiveness of policy and legislation, hence the need for mandatory laws. A study by UNESCO (1996) shows that special needs provision in 52 member nations indicate clearly that legislation is needed to ensure rights of people with disabilities to equal rights and opportunities. This can further help in securing the resources needed to translate abstract rights into practical entitlements. Research indicates that in developed countries the importance and positive impacts of mandatory laws and policies on the implementation of inclusive programs are recognized (Ballard, 1996; Etscheidt, & Bartlet, 1999; Lorenz, 2002; Harvey, 1998). Considering the importance of enforcing policies and laws in the implementation of inclusive programs in order to realize the provision of appropriate services for individuals with disabilities, inclusive education in developing countries will remain at an embryonic stage due the absence of mandatory laws and legislation influencing the provision of these services.

Suggestions for implementing inclusive education

Due to the prevailing economic and developmental difficulties in many developing countries, achieving Western-type notions of inclusive education will remain unrealistic. It is important to put in place strategies that can bring beneficial inclusive education within reach of the teeming millions of individuals with disabilities in developing countries. Effective inclusive education requires school organizations to address professional development on two levels: re-culturing of the schools to reflect inclusive beliefs and values and enhancement of teacher skills and knowledge to address the learning needs of all students. There is need for change in policy and teaching practice to allow for diversity. Change in societal attitude is one major factor that has great influence on inclusive education. Although resource constraints impede the provision and implementation of inclusive education in developing countries, the major problem goes beyond this. It has its roots in attitudes and perceptions of the mainstream society. There is widespread ignorance regarding disability and the potential that people with disabilities have to become productive and self-reliant members of the society. Once this attitudinal ‘barrier’ that prevails in the mind-set of the society is broken, inclusion is likely to enjoy the support of the immediate community and society at large.

With a positive attitude towards disability it would be easy to form associations that advance the concerns of people with disabilities. These associations can mobilize support for inclusive education. A number of countries have taken this route just like in developed countries and its paying off, for example to mention but a few of such associations, the ‘Helen Keller International’, which is a NGO that provides assistance for education and rehabilitation for the blind. The ‘Fellowship for Advancement of the Visually Handicapped’ (FAVH) a NGO that provides skills and funds for projects. The ‘Bangladesh Deaf Women’s Welfare Association’, which provides training skills in sewing to women. The ‘ Royal Institute of the Deaf’, the ‘Spastic Association’, the ‘Association of People with Disabilities’, the ‘National Council for Exceptional Children’ the list is endless. If developing countries can have many of such associations, they act as pressure groups and a lot more could be achieved through lobbying and support towards changing society’s attitudes towards people with disabilities. Such associations can also be used towards the implementation of community inclusive programs.

The associations could be brought in towards the establishment of village/rural resource and research centers. Due to limited funds and poor transport systems, schools sometimes run for long periods without the necessary teaching materials needed for children with special needs. With the help of governments and NGOs, resource and research centers could be established and   stocked up with relevant materials appropriate to be used by children with disabilities in inclusive schools. Locally produced teaching and learning materials could be developed and kept in these centers. A team of research personnel in the field of special education could be appointed to work in such centers producing relevant statistics of school going age children with disabilities. The team could be tasked to research into the possibility of using locally produced raw materials to produce relevant teaching materials. The centers could also produce literature on a small scale. The over-dependence of developing countries in terms of literature and teaching materials from developed countries hampers the implementation and sustainability of inclusive education. Members of the community with the help of specialist personnel could run these centers.   Any funds from donor agencies could be used to import items that the centers would not be able to produce. This would alleviate the problem of having to import ‘everything’. If these associations collaborate harmoniously and relentlessly, they would be able to influence governments and policy makers to enact enabling conditions for special needs provision. They would also lobby for reasonable funding allocations for improved special needs facilities. Mobile units could be established to distribute teaching materials, awareness campaign information and restock resource and research centers. Alternatively these could distribute materials and information in schools that run inclusive programs. The establishment of rural resource centers has been found to be useful and successful in (Wahab, 1997), Bangladesh, India, Nepal, China and Thailand. It is imperative that resource and research centers be established to generate data that will provide up to date statistics for informative planning and implementation of inclusive programs.

Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) has proved to be one of the most successful programs run in rural areas that could be used to enhance inclusive education. Research findings (McConkey & O’Toole, 1995; Mariga & McConkey, 1986; Marfo, 1994 & Krishna, 1995) indicate that CBR programs have been highly successful in developing countries. It is estimated that most of the disadvantaged children with disabilities live in rural or semi-urban communities where the level of awareness and facilities are limited, general development is backward and roads are prohibitive for supplies to reach the people (Mittler, 2000; O’Toole, 1991).   If inclusive education was to be implemented in the way of CBR, families and members of the community could be trained and then be fully involved in supporting community schools that run inclusion programs. It would therefore stand to reason that inclusive education would be more effective when run in the immediate environment by the people of that community. The advantage of implementing inclusive education through CBR is that the program takes a multi-faceted approach, thus engaging in public awareness, prevention of disability, education on disability, available medical equipment and treatment, social, psychological and vocational programs. CBR programs that are in operation in developing countries are making an impact on special needs provision and rehabilitation (Eleweke & Rodda, 2000). Programs that have been run in some of the developing countries, for instance Mexico (Werner, 1995); Guyana (O’Toole, 1995); Lesotho (Khatleli & Mariga, 1995); Philippines (McGlade & Aquino, 1995); Vietnam (Hai & Nhan, 1995); India (Krishna, 1995; Roa, 1997); Zanzibar (Khalfan, 1992); Uganda (Chaudhury & Zinkin, 1995); and Zimbabwe (Mariga & McConkey, 1986). With appropriate policies and legislation put in place, adequate support and proper planning, inclusive education can be implemented successfully with most of its challenges met.

Governments should be encouraged to appoint companies that can produce local materials and equipment to be used in special needs provisions. Training colleges should be adequately equipped to train specialist personnel such as educational psychologists, educational audiologists, speech and language therapists, sign language interpreters, physiotherapists and guidance counselors. Long term and short term in-service programs should be run for teachers who teach children with special needs. Schools and organizations that promote inclusive education can also give such teachers opportunities to upgrade themselves through seminars and workshops held on a regular basis.

Conclusion

If developing countries south of the Sahara are to implement effective programs for inclusive education and to achieve Education for All (EFA), the international organizations, NGOs and donors have to direct their efforts towards the development of national capacities for policy-making and system management. They also have to continue bridging forward the concerns of marginalized and currently excluded groups. In addition there should be dissemination of information and ideas, network building, improvement of access and support to the development of inclusive education. Resource centers should be established in rural areas where support systems can operate from, supporting and feeding schools that run inclusive programs with the necessary materials, equipment and technical advice they require to function smoothly. It is important that if UNESCO is to run or support inclusive programs in any of the developing countries, the emphasis on all the activities should have practical implications taking into account the social, economic and political contexts of those countries. There is need for donor agencies to adapt their methods and use the personnel in those particular countries in order to suit the cultural backgrounds of the developing countries they help or else the programs will flop as soon as foreign personnel turn their backs away. Developing countries should train their personnel to use locally available resources in order to improvise and sustain inclusive education. There should be co-operation between donor organizations and naturally relevant personnel in the countries involved. These include officials in education, policy makers and other related relevant personnel.

Children with disabilities have immense potentials, which remain untapped. Through inclusive education, these potentials can be exploited and put to productive and profitable use to benefit the family, the society and the country. While the ideal is still a long way from being realized in developing countries, the issue of considering children with disabilities as a neglected but extremely important sub-group of the population merits immediate continuous attention.

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